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| | <big><big>'''Isotopes'''</big></big> |
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| <big><big>ISOTOPES[https://archive.org/details/isotopes00asto/page/n3/mode/2up]</big></big>
| | {{Template:Aston 1922 Contents}} |
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| {{Special:PrefixIndex/{{FULLPAGENAME}}/}} | |
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| F. W. ASTON, M.A., D.Sc, A.I.C., F.R.S.
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| Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge
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| LONDON
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| EDWARD. ARNOLD & CO.
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| 1922
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| [All rights reserved]
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| Printed in Great Britain
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|
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|
| ==PREFACE== | | ==PREFACE== |
| | [[File:Portrait of Francis William Aston (1877-1945), Chemist and Physicist (2536015497) (cropped).jpg|400 px|right]] |
| | I have undertaken the preparation of this book on [[isotope]]s in response to many requests made to me by teachers of physics and chemistry and others working in these subjects that I should publish the results obtained by means of the [[mass spectrograph]] in a form more convenient to the public than that in which they first appeared. This is one of the reasons why the space allotted to the inactive isotopes may appear, in the light of the general title of the book, somewhat disproportion- ately large. Another is that the subject of radioactive isotopes really requires a book to itself, and I am in the hope that the inadequacy of my account may stimulate the production of such a volume by hands more competent than mine to deal with this very special and remarkable field of modern science. The logical order of exposition of a scientific subject is to start with the simple and from that build up the more complex. Unfortunately the sequence of events in experimental research is the exact opposite of this so that a compromise must be effected, unless one is content to sacrifice historical treatment altogether. The latter seems very undesirable in a new subject. I have endeavoured in Chapters I, II and IV, and elsewhere when possible, to adhere strictly to the historical order of events even at the cost of some reiteration. |
|
| |
|
| I have undertaken the preparation of this book on [[isotope]]s
| | I wish to take this opportunity of expressing my indebted- ness to Mr. C. G. Darwin for his timely criticism and unfailing assistance throughout the work, and also to Mr. R. H. Fowler for help with the proofs. My thanks are also due to [[wikipedia:Frederick Soddy|Professor Soddy]] for his diagram of the radioactive isotopes, to [[wikipedia:Arthur Jeffrey Dempster|Mr. A. J. Dempster]] for kindly sending me the illustrations of his work, to the proprietors of the Philosophical Magazine and to the Council of the Chemical Society for permission to use the plates and figures of my original papers, and to Messrs. Macmillan & Co., for the diagram of the radioactive transformations. |
| in response to many requests made to me by teachers of physics
| |
| and chemistry and others working in these subjects that I
| |
| should publish the results obtained by means of the [[mass spectrograph]] in a form more convenient to the public than that
| |
| in which they first appeared. This is one of the reasons why
| |
| the space allotted to the inactive isotopes may appear, in the
| |
| light of the general title of the book, somewhat disproportion-
| |
| ately large. Another is that the subject of radioactive isotopes
| |
| really requires a book to itself, and I am in the hope that the
| |
| inadequacy of my account may stimulate the production of
| |
| such a volume by hands more competent than mine to deal
| |
| with this very special and remarkable field of modern science.
| |
| The logical order of exposition of a scientific subject is to start
| |
| with the simple and from that build up the more complex.
| |
| Unfortunately the sequence of events in experimental research
| |
| is the exact opposite of this so that a compromise must be
| |
| effected, unless one is content to sacrifice historical treatment
| |
| altogether. The latter seems very undesirable in a new subject.
| |
| I have endeavoured in Chapters I, II and IV, and elsewhere
| |
| when possible, to adhere strictly to the historical order of
| |
| events even at the cost of some reiteration.
| |
| | |
| I wish to take this opportunity of expressing my indebted- | |
| ness to Mr. C. G. Darwin for his timely criticism and unfailing | |
| assistance throughout the work, and also to Mr. R. H. Fowler | |
| for help with the proofs. My thanks are also due to [[wikipedia:Frederick Soddy|Professor Soddy]] for his diagram of the radioactive isotopes, to [[wikipedia:Arthur Jeffery Dempster|Mr. A. J. Dempster]] for kindly sending me the illustrations of his work, | |
| to the proprietors of the Philosophical Magazine and to | |
| the Council of the Chemical Society for permission to use the | |
| plates and figures of my original papers, and to Messrs. | |
| Macmillan & Co., for the diagram of the radioactive trans- | |
| formations.
| |
|
| |
|
| :[[wikipedia:Francis William Aston|F. W. Aston]] | | :[[wikipedia:Francis William Aston|F. W. Aston]] |
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| :January, 1922. | | :January, 1922. |
|
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| ==CONTENTS==
| | ---- |
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| [[Aston 1922/Contents]]
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| ==CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION==
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| [[Aston 1922 Chapter 1]]
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| ==CHAPTER II - THE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 2]]
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| ==CHAPTER III - POSITIVE RAYS==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 3]]
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| ==CHAPTER IV - NEON==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 4]]
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| ==CHAPTER V - THE MASS-SPECTROGRAPH==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 5]]
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| ==CHAPTER VI - ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 6]]
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| ==CHAPTER VII - ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS (Continued)==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 7]]
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| ==CHAPTER VIII - THE ELECTRICAL THEORY OF MATTER==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 8]]
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| ==CHAPTER IX - ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC NUMBERS==
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| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 9]]
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| ==CHAPTER X - THE SPECTRA OF ISOTOPES==
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| | |
| 108. The Spectra of isotopes. As has already been
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| stated^ the first experimental work on the spectra of isotopes
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| was that of Russell and Rossi in 1912 who failed to distinguish=
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| | |
| any difference between the spectrum of thorium and that of a
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| mixture of thorium and ionium containing a considerable
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| percentage of the latter. The same negative result was
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| obtained by Exner and Haschek.^ During the fractional
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| diffusion of neon^ no spectroscopic difference was detected
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| between the heaviest and the lightest fraction, though as the
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| separation was small this negative evidence was not very
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| strong. In 1914 Soddy and Hyman showed that the spectrum
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| of lead derived from thorium was identical with that of ordinary=
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| | |
| lead.* Furthermore in the same year the experiments of
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| Richards and Lembert,^ Honigschmidt and HoroAvitz,*^ and
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| Merton '' proved the same result. Merton concluded from his
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| 1914 experiments that the difference in wave-length for the
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| A 4058 line must be less than 0-003 A. Before going on to
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| consider the more recent results it will be as well to discuss =
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| the
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| magnitude of the difference to be expected from theory.
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| | |
| 109. The magnitude of the Gravitational effect. In
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| | |
| the Bohr theory of spectra the planetary electrons of the atom
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| rotate round the central positively charged nucleus in various
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| | |
| 1 F. p. 9.
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| | |
| 2 Exiier and Haschek, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien, iia, 121, 175, =
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| 1912.
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| 3 V. p. 39.
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| * Soddy and Hyman, Jour. Chem. Soc, 105, 1402, 1914.
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| ^ Richards and Lembert, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, 36, 1329, 1914.=
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| ^ Honigschmidt and Horowitz, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien, iia, =
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| 123,
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| 1914.
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| ' Merton, Proc. Roy. Soc, 91A, 198, 1914.
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| 121
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| 122 ISOTOPES
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| stable orbits. The frequencies of the spectral lines emitted
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| by the element are associated in an absolutely definite manner
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| with the rotational frequencies of these orbits which are
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| calculated by what is known as a " quantum " relation.
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| Without going further into the theory it will be seen at once
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| that if we alter the force acting between the central nucleus
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| and its planetary electrons these orbits will change and with
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| them the frequency of the light emitted. It is therefore of
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| interest to examine the magnitude of the change, to be expected=
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| | |
| from this theory, when we alter the mass of the nucleus without=
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| | |
| changing its charge, and so pass from one isotope to another.
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| The difference in the system which will first occur to one is
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| that although the electrical force remains the same the gravi-
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| tational force must be altered. The order of magnitude of
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| the change expected in the total force will clearly be given by=
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| | |
| considering the ratio between the electrical and gravitational
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| forces acting, to take the simplest case, between the protou
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| and the electron in a neutral hydrogen atom.
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| | |
| Assuming the law of force to be the same in both cases, this
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| ratio is simply e^/GMm ; where e is the electronic charge
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| 4-77 X 10~i", G the universal gravitational constant 6-6 x 10"^,=
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| M the mass of the proton 1-66 x lO"^*^ and m the mass of the=
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| | |
| electron 9-0 x 10~ 2^. Putting in these numerical values we
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| obtain the prodigious ratio 2-3 x 10 ^9. In other words the
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| effect of doubling the mass of the nucleus without altering its=
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| | |
| charge would give the same percentage increase in the total
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| pull on the planetary electron, as would be produced in the
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| pull between the earth and the moon by a quantity of meteoric
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| dust weighing less than one million millionth of a gramme
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| falling upon the surface of the former body. The gravitational
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| effect may therefore be dismissed as entirely negligible.
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| | |
| 110. Deviation of the Bohr orbits due to change in
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| the position of the centre of gravity of the rotating
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| system. Although we may neglect the gravitational effect
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| there is another, of quite a different order, which arises in th=
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| e
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| following manner. The mass of the electron compared with
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| that of the nucleus is small but not absolutely negligible, hence=
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| | |
| it will not rotate about the nucleus as though that were a
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| | |
| THE SPECTRA OF ISOTOPES 123
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| | |
| fixed point, but both will rotate about their common centre
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| of gravity. The position of this centre of gravity will be
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| shifted by any alteration in the mass of the nucleus. If E, M=
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| | |
| and e, m are the respective charge and mass of the nucleus and=
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| the rotating electron, the equation of motion is
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| rM , Ee
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| | |
| M + m r^
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| | |
| where r is the distance between the two charges and w the
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| angular velocity. Bohr ^ introduced this effect of the mass of
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| the nucleus in order to account for the results obtained by
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| Fowler. 2 The Bohr expression for the frequency then becomes
| |
| | |
| where e, E and m, M are the charges and masses of the electron=
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| | |
| and nucleus respectively. If we suppose that the atomic
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| weight of lead from radium to be one unit less than that of
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| ordinary lead, this theory predicts a difference in wave-length,
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| for the principle line, of 000005 A between the two, a quantity=
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| | |
| beyond the reach of the most delicate methods of spectrum
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| analysis used up to the present.
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| | |
| 111. Later experiments of Aronberg and Merton.
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| | |
| In 1917 Aronberg,^ applying the extremely high dispersion
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| derived from the spectrum of the sixth order of a Michelson
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| 10-inch grating to the line A 4058 emitted from a specimen of
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| radio-lead of atomic weight 206-318, observed a difiference of
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| 0-0044 A between this and ordinary lead, of atomic weight
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| 207-20. This remarkable result has been since confirmed by
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| Merton of Oxford* who gives the difference of wave-length
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| between radio-lead from pitchblende and ordinary lead as
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| 0-0050^2 0-0007, Merton made use of a totally different optical
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| system, namely a Fabry and Perot etalon, so that the agreement
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| is very striking.
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| | |
| It is to be noticed that the effect observed was not a mere
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| | |
| 1 Bohr, Nature, 92, 231, 1913.
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| | |
| 2 Fowler, Nature, 92, 95, 1913.
| |
| | |
| 3 Aronberg, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., Z, 710, 1917, and Ast=
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| rophys,
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| Jour., 47, 96, 1918.
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| | |
| 4 Merton, Proc. Boy. Soc, 96A, 388, 920.
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| 124
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| ISOTOPES
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| | |
| | |
| broadening of the line but a definite shift, and that, though
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| of the same sign, it is about one hundred times greater than
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| that predicted by the Bohr theory, Merton also found a shift
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| of 0-0022 =C2=B10-0008 A between the wave-length of thorite-lead
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| and ordinary lead, differing in atomic weight by about 0-6.
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| The heavier atom shows the higher frequency in all cases.
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| This remarkable discrepancy between the shift predicted by
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| theory and that actually observed has been discussed by
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| Harkins and Aronberg.^
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| | |
| At a recent discussion on isotopes at the Royal Society ^
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| Merton commented upon the line 6708 A emitted by the
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| element lithium, which consists of two components 0-151 A
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| apart. If lithium is accepted as a mixture of isotopes 6 and 7,=
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| ^
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| he calculated that each of these components should be accom-
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| panied by a satellite, some sixteen times as faint, displaced by=
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| | |
| 0-087 A. So far he had not been able to observe such satellites=
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| .
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| Previous experiments of Merton and Lindemann* on the
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| expected doubling in the case of neon had given no conclusive
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| results on account of the physical width of the lines. It was
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| hoped that this difficulty could be overcome by the use of
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| liquid hydrogen temperatures.
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| | |
| StiU more recently Merton^ has repeated his experiments on
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| lead, using a very pure sample of uranium lead from Australian
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| Carnotite. His final results are indicated in the following
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| table :
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| A
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| (Carnotite lead)"!
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| . ^(ordinary lead) J
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| r Wave niimber (ordinary lead) '
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| . Wave-number (Carnotite lead).
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| 4058
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| 3740
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| 3684
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| 3640
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| 3573
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| 0-011 =C2=B10-0008
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| 0-0074=C2=B10-0011
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| 0-0048=C2=B10-0007
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| 0-0070=C2=B10-0003
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| 0-0048=C2=B10-0005
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| 0-065=C2=B10-005
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| 0-053=C2=B10-008
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| 0-035=C2=B10-005
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| 0-C52=C2=B10-002
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| 0-037=C2=B10-004
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| 1 Harkiiis and Aronberg, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc, 42, 1328,
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| | |
| Merton, Proc. Roy. Soc.=C2=BB 99A, 87, 1921.
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| | |
| =C2=BB V. p. 86.
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| | |
| * Lindemann, ibid.
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| Merton, Roy. Soc. Proc, lOOA, 84, 1921.
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| 1920.
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| THE SPECTRA OF ISOTOPES 125
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| | |
| It will be noticed that the shift for the line A 4058 is rathe=
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| r
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| more than twice that obtained before. Merton suggests that
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| the most probable explanation of this difference is evidently
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| that the Carnotite lead used is a purer sample of uranium lead=
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| | |
| than that obtained from the pitchblende residues. It is also
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| apparent that the differences are not the same for different
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| lines, an interesting and somewhat surprising result.
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| 112. "Isotope" effect on the Infra-red spectrum of
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| molecules. The extreme smaUness of the isotope " shift "=
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| | |
| described above in the case of line spectra emitted by atoms is=
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| due to the fact that one of the particles concerned in the
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| vibration is the electron itself, whose mass is minute compared
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| with that of the nucleus. Very much larger effects should be
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| expected for any vibration in which two atoms or nuclei are
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| concerned, instead of one atom and an electron. Such a
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| vibration would be in the infra-red region of the spectrum.
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| This effect was first observed by Imes^ when mapping the
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| fine structure of the infra-red absorption bands of the halogen
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| acids. In the case of the HCl " Harmonic " band at 1-76^,
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| mapped with a 20,000 line grating, the maxima were noticed
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| to be attended by satellites. Imes remarks : " The apparent
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| tendency of some of the maxima to resolve into doublets in the=
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| | |
| case of the HCl harmonic may be due to errors of observation,
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| but it seems significant that the small secondary maxima are
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| all on the long-wave side of the principal maxima they accom-
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| pany. It is, of course, possible that still higher dispersion
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| applied to the problem may show even the present curves to
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| be composite."
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| | |
| Loomis^ pointed out that these satellites could be attributed
| |
| to the recently discovered isotopes of chlorine. In a later
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| paper ^ he has shown that, if mi is the mass of the hydrogen
| |
| nucleus, and ma the mass of the charged halogen atom, the
| |
| | |
| difference should be expressed by the quanity ^ =
| |
| ~ the
| |
| | |
| square root of which occurs in the denominator of the expression=
| |
| | |
| | |
| ^ Imes, Astrophysical Journal, 50, 251, 1919.
| |
| | |
| 2 Loomis, Nature, Oct. 7, 179, 1920.
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| | |
| ^ Loomis, Astrophysical Journal, 52, 248, 1920.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 126 ISOTOPES
| |
| | |
| for frequency. " Consequently the net difference between
| |
| the spectra of isotopes will be that the wave-lengths of lines
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| in the spectrum of the heavier isotope will be longer than the=
| |
| | |
| corresponding lines for the lighter isotope in the ratio
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| 1 + 1/1330 : 1 for chlorine and 1 -f 1/6478 : 1 for bromine.=
| |
| | |
| Since the average atomic weight of chlorine is 35-46 the amounts=
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| | |
| of CP^ and CP' present in ordinary chlorine must be as
| |
| 1-54 : 0-46 or as 3-35 : 1 and, if the lines were absolutely =
| |
| sharp
| |
| and perfectly resolved, the absorption spectrum of ordinary
| |
| HCl should consist of pairs of lines separated by 1/1330 of
| |
| their frequency and the one of shorter wave-length should have
| |
| about 3-35 the intensity of the other. The average atomic
| |
| weight of bromine is 79-92, hence the two isotopes are present
| |
| in nearly equal proportions and the absorption spectrum of
| |
| HBr should consist of lines of nearly equal intensity separated
| |
| by 1/6478 of their frequency."
| |
| | |
| The latter will be too close to be observed with the dispersion=
| |
| | |
| employed. In the case of the HCl band at IIQ ju the difference=
| |
| | |
| of wave number on this view should be 4-3. The mean differ-
| |
| ence of wave number given by Loomis' measurements of 13
| |
| lines on Imes' original curves for this band is 4-5 ^ 0-4 corre=
| |
| -
| |
| sponding to 14 A in wave-length.
| |
| | |
| The spectroscopic confirmation of the isotopes of chlorine
| |
| has also been discussed by Kratzer,! who considers that the
| |
| oscillation-rotation bands of hydrogen chloride due to Imes^
| |
| are in complete accordance with the theory.
| |
| | |
| 1 H. Ivratzer, Zeit. Physik., 3, 60, 1920.
| |
| * Loc. cit.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ==CHAPTER XI - THE SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES==
| |
| [[Aston 1922/Chapter 11]]
| |
| | |
| ==APPENDIX I==
| |
| | |
| Table of atomic weights and isotopes of the elements.
| |
| | |
| The elements are given in order of their atomic=
| |
| numbers. The
| |
| different periods are indicated by gaps after the inert gases.
| |
| A curious relation, pointed out by Rydberg, is that the
| |
| atomic numbers of all the inert gases are given by taking the
| |
| series 2 (P + 2^ + 22 + 3^ + 3^ + 4^ + =
| |
| ) and stoppmg the
| |
| summation at any term. This gives the numbers used by Langmuir
| |
| (p. 95).
| |
| | |
| The atomic weights given are the International ones except in
| |
| the cases marked with an asterisk, where the figures are taken f=
| |
| rom
| |
| some of the recent determinations given below.
| |
| | |
| The isotopes where known are given in order of their atomic
| |
| masses. The proportion of an isotope in a complex element is
| |
| indicated by the index letters a, 6, c ... in descending order.=
| |
| | |
| In the case of isotopes of the radioactive elements 81-92 the ro=
| |
| man
| |
| numeral gives the number of them believed to exist. The nomen-
| |
| clature of some of the rare earths 69-72 is not yet standardised.=
| |
| | |
| The names here are those used by Moseley. Some of these elements=
| |
| ,
| |
| though detected by their X-ray spectra, have never been isolated.=
| |
| | |
| The elements corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 75, 85, 87=
| |
| | |
| (all odd) have not yet been discovered.
| |
| | |
| Recent atomic weight determinations. The following is a
| |
| list of some of the elements whose atomic weights have been re-=
| |
| | |
| determined quite recently, together with references to the papers
| |
| in which they were published. Where more than one value is
| |
| given different methods were used :
| |
| | |
| Fluorine 19-001. Moles and Batuecas, Jour. Chim. Phys., 18, 35=
| |
| 3,
| |
| | |
| 1920.
| |
| Aluminium 26*963. Richards and Krepelka, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc,=
| |
| | |
| | |
| 42, 2221, 1920.
| |
| Silicon 28-111. Baxter, Weatherelland Holmes, ibid., 42, 1194, =
| |
| 1920.
| |
| Scandium 45-10. Honigschmid, Zeit. Electrochem., 25, 93, 1919.=
| |
| | |
| Tin 118-703. Baxter and Starkweather, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 42,=
| |
| | |
| | |
| 905, 1920.
| |
| | |
| 118-699. Brauner and Krepelka, ibid., 42, 917, 1920.
| |
| | |
| 141
| |
| | |
| | |
| 142
| |
| | |
| | |
| APPENDIX I
| |
| | |
| | |
| Tellurium 127-73, 127-79. Bruylants and Michielsen, Bull=
| |
| . Acad.
| |
| | |
| Bdg., 119, 1919.
| |
| Samarium 150 "43. Owens, Balke and Kremers, Journ. Am. Chem=
| |
| .
| |
| | |
| Soc, 42, 515, 1920.
| |
| Thtdium 169-44, 169-66. James and Stewart, ibid., 42, 2022, =
| |
| 1920.
| |
| Bismuth 209-02. Honigschmid, Zeit. Electrochem., 26, 403, 1920=
| |
| .
| |
| | |
| 208-9967. Classen and Wey, Ber., 53, 2267, 1920.
| |
| Antimony 121-773. Willard and McAlpine, Jouryi. Am. Chem. Soc, =
| |
| 43,
| |
| | |
| 797, 1921.
| |
| Lanthanum 138-912. Baxter, Tani and Chapin, Journ. Am. Chem.=
| |
| | |
| | |
| Soc, 43, 1085, 1921.
| |
| Germanium 72-418. Miller, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc, 43, 1085, 19=
| |
| 21.
| |
| Zinc 65-38. Baxter and Hodges, i&id., 43, 1242, 1921.
| |
| Cadmium 112-411. Baxter and Wilson, ibid., 43, 1230, 1921.
| |
| | |
| | |
| -Q
| |
| | |
| " m
| |
| | |
| o^
| |
| | |
| Element.
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| a
| |
| | |
| if
| |
| | |
| Masses of isotopes.
| |
| | |
| =C2=A3 -2 *^ Hydrogen . .
| |
| | |
| H
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 1-008
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 1-008
| |
| | |
| f^^'o Helium . . .
| |
| | |
| He
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 4-00
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 4
| |
| | |
| &> 1"
| |
| | |
| 00 Lithivim .
| |
| | |
| Li
| |
| | |
| 3
| |
| | |
| 6-94
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| -
| |
| | |
| " Beryllium
| |
| | |
| Be
| |
| | |
| 4
| |
| | |
| 91
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 9
| |
| | |
| r^ Boron
| |
| | |
| B
| |
| | |
| 5
| |
| | |
| 10-9
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 10=C2=BB 11"
| |
| | |
| 3 Carbon .
| |
| | |
| C
| |
| | |
| 6
| |
| | |
| 12-00
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 12
| |
| | |
| S Nitrogen .
| |
| | |
| N
| |
| | |
| 7
| |
| | |
| 14-008
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 14
| |
| | |
| ^ Oxygen . . .
| |
| | |
| 0
| |
| | |
| 8
| |
| | |
| 16-00
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 16
| |
| | |
| 0 Fluorine .
| |
| | |
| F
| |
| | |
| 9
| |
| | |
| 19-00
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 19
| |
| | |
| ''^ Neon ....
| |
| | |
| Ne
| |
| | |
| 10
| |
| | |
| 20-20
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 20" 22*
| |
| 23
| |
| | |
| oQ Sodium .
| |
| | |
| Na
| |
| | |
| 11
| |
| | |
| 2300
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| ^ Magnesium .
| |
| | |
| Mg
| |
| | |
| 12
| |
| | |
| 24-32*
| |
| | |
| 3
| |
| | |
| 24-=3D 25* 26^
| |
| | |
| Aluminium .
| |
| | |
| Al
| |
| | |
| 13
| |
| | |
| 26-96*
| |
| | |
| _o Silicon
| |
| | |
| Si
| |
| | |
| 14
| |
| | |
| 28-3
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 28" 29* (30)
| |
| | |
| 3 Phosphorus .
| |
| | |
| P
| |
| | |
| 15
| |
| | |
| 31-04
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 31
| |
| | |
| ^ Sulphur . . .
| |
| | |
| s
| |
| | |
| 16
| |
| | |
| 3206
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 32
| |
| | |
| 'S Chlorine . . .
| |
| | |
| CI
| |
| | |
| 17
| |
| | |
| 35-46
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 35" 37* (39)
| |
| | |
| ^ Argon . . .
| |
| | |
| A
| |
| | |
| 18
| |
| | |
| 39-9
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 36* 40"
| |
| 39" 41*
| |
| | |
| Potassium
| |
| | |
| K
| |
| | |
| 19
| |
| | |
| 39-10
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| Calcium .
| |
| | |
| Ca
| |
| | |
| 20
| |
| | |
| 40-07
| |
| | |
| (2)
| |
| | |
| 40 (44)
| |
| | |
| Scandium
| |
| | |
| Sc
| |
| | |
| 21
| |
| | |
| 45-1*
| |
| | |
| Titanium .
| |
| | |
| Ti
| |
| | |
| 22
| |
| | |
| 48-1
| |
| | |
| Vanadium
| |
| | |
| V
| |
| | |
| 23
| |
| | |
| 510
| |
| | |
| 0
| |
| | |
| 2 Chromium .
| |
| | |
| Cr
| |
| | |
| 24
| |
| | |
| 52-0
| |
| | |
| H Manganese .
| |
| | |
| Mn
| |
| | |
| 25
| |
| | |
| 54-93
| |
| | |
| ' Iron ....
| |
| | |
| Fe
| |
| | |
| 26
| |
| | |
| 55-84
| |
| | |
| n
| |
| | |
| ^ Cobalt . . .
| |
| | |
| Co
| |
| | |
| 27
| |
| | |
| 58-97
| |
| | |
| J Nickel
| |
| | |
| Ni
| |
| | |
| 28
| |
| | |
| 58-68
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 58" 60*
| |
| | |
| P
| |
| | |
| n Copper .
| |
| | |
| Cu
| |
| | |
| 29
| |
| | |
| 63-57
| |
| | |
| J
| |
| | |
| =3D Zinc ....
| |
| | |
| Zn
| |
| | |
| 30
| |
| | |
| 65-37
| |
| | |
| (4)
| |
| | |
| (64=C2=B0 66* 68 7O<0
| |
| | |
| * Galliimi . . .
| |
| | |
| Ga
| |
| | |
| 31
| |
| | |
| 70-10
| |
| | |
| Germanivmi .
| |
| | |
| Ge
| |
| | |
| 32
| |
| | |
| 72-5
| |
| | |
| Arsenic .
| |
| | |
| As
| |
| | |
| 33
| |
| | |
| 74-96
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 75
| |
| | |
| Seleniima .
| |
| | |
| Se
| |
| | |
| 34
| |
| | |
| 79-2
| |
| | |
| Bromine .
| |
| | |
| Br
| |
| | |
| 35
| |
| | |
| 79-92
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 79" 81*
| |
| | |
| Krypton .
| |
| | |
| Kr
| |
| | |
| 36
| |
| | |
| 82-92
| |
| | |
| 6
| |
| | |
| 78/ 80 82'^ 83-^ 84=C2=BB
| |
| | |
| 86*
| |
| | |
| APPENDIX I
| |
| | |
| | |
| 143
| |
| | |
| | |
| "S .
| |
| | |
| ^
| |
| | |
| o *^
| |
| | |
| O^i
| |
| | |
| o ^^
| |
| | |
| Element
| |
| | |
| o
| |
| | |
| X!
| |
| | |
| E
| |
| >,
| |
| | |
| 00
| |
| | |
| Masses of Isotopes.
| |
| | |
| Rubidium
| |
| | |
| Rb
| |
| | |
| 37
| |
| | |
| 85-45
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| 85" 87*
| |
| | |
| Strontium
| |
| | |
| Sr
| |
| | |
| 38
| |
| | |
| 87-63
| |
| | |
| Yttrium .
| |
| | |
| Y
| |
| | |
| 39
| |
| | |
| 89-33
| |
| | |
| Zirconium
| |
| | |
| Zr
| |
| | |
| 40
| |
| | |
| 90-6
| |
| | |
| Niobium .
| |
| | |
| Nb
| |
| | |
| 41
| |
| | |
| 93-1
| |
| | |
| 00 Molybdenum
| |
| | |
| Mo
| |
| | |
| 42
| |
| | |
| 96-0
| |
| | |
| *H _ ~
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| 43
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| '-' Ruthenium .
| |
| | |
| Ru
| |
| | |
| 44
| |
| | |
| 101-7
| |
| | |
| 'o Rhodium.
| |
| | |
| Rh
| |
| | |
| 45
| |
| | |
| 102-9
| |
| | |
| =C2=A7 Palladium
| |
| | |
| Pd
| |
| | |
| 46
| |
| | |
| 106-7
| |
| | |
| An Silver ....
| |
| | |
| Ag
| |
| | |
| 47
| |
| | |
| 107-88
| |
| | |
| X Cadmium
| |
| | |
| Cd
| |
| | |
| 48
| |
| | |
| 112-40
| |
| | |
| "O Indiimi .
| |
| | |
| In
| |
| | |
| 49
| |
| | |
| 114-8
| |
| | |
| Tin ... .
| |
| | |
| Sn
| |
| | |
| 50
| |
| | |
| 118-7
| |
| | |
| Antimony
| |
| | |
| Sb
| |
| | |
| 51
| |
| | |
| 120-2
| |
| | |
| Tellurium
| |
| | |
| Te
| |
| | |
| 52
| |
| | |
| 127-5
| |
| | |
| Iodine
| |
| | |
| I
| |
| | |
| 53
| |
| | |
| 126-92
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 127
| |
| | |
| L Xenon
| |
| | |
| X
| |
| | |
| 54
| |
| | |
| 130-2
| |
| | |
| (7)5
| |
| | |
| (128) 129" (130) 13P 132=C2=BB
| |
| 134'' 136"
| |
| | |
| Caesium .
| |
| | |
| Cs
| |
| | |
| 55
| |
| | |
| 132-81
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 133
| |
| | |
| Barium .
| |
| | |
| Ba
| |
| | |
| 56
| |
| | |
| 137-37
| |
| | |
| Lanthanum .
| |
| | |
| La
| |
| | |
| 57
| |
| | |
| 139-0
| |
| | |
| Cerium
| |
| | |
| Ce
| |
| | |
| 58
| |
| | |
| 140-25
| |
| | |
| Praseodymium .
| |
| | |
| Pr
| |
| | |
| 59
| |
| | |
| 140-6
| |
| | |
| Neodymiimi .
| |
| | |
| Nd
| |
| | |
| 60
| |
| | |
| 144-3
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| 61
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Samarium
| |
| | |
| Sm
| |
| | |
| 62
| |
| | |
| 150-4
| |
| | |
| Europium
| |
| | |
| Eu
| |
| | |
| 63
| |
| | |
| 152-0
| |
| | |
| Gadolinium .
| |
| | |
| Gd
| |
| | |
| 64
| |
| | |
| 157-3
| |
| | |
| Terbium .
| |
| | |
| Tb
| |
| | |
| 65
| |
| | |
| 159-2
| |
| | |
| Dysprosium .
| |
| | |
| Ds
| |
| | |
| 66
| |
| | |
| 162-5
| |
| | |
| c
| |
| | |
| 5 Holmium
| |
| | |
| Ho
| |
| | |
| 67
| |
| | |
| 163-5
| |
| | |
| J, Erbium .
| |
| | |
| Er
| |
| | |
| 68
| |
| | |
| 167-7
| |
| | |
| =C2=B0 Thulium . . .
| |
| | |
| Tu
| |
| | |
| 69
| |
| | |
| 168-5
| |
| | |
| 1 Ytterbiiun . .
| |
| | |
| Yb
| |
| | |
| 70
| |
| | |
| 173-5
| |
| | |
| 'C Lutecuim
| |
| | |
| Lu
| |
| | |
| 71
| |
| | |
| 175
| |
| | |
| Pm (Keltium) . .
| |
| | |
| (Kt)
| |
| | |
| 72
| |
| | |
| ji Tantalum
| |
| | |
| Ta
| |
| | |
| 73
| |
| | |
| 181-5
| |
| | |
| <=C2=BB Tungsten.
| |
| | |
| W
| |
| | |
| 74
| |
| | |
| 1840
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| 75
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Osmium .
| |
| | |
| Os
| |
| | |
| 76
| |
| | |
| 190-9
| |
| | |
| Iridium .
| |
| | |
| Ir
| |
| | |
| 77
| |
| | |
| 193-1
| |
| | |
| Platinimi .
| |
| | |
| Pt
| |
| | |
| 78
| |
| | |
| 195-2
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| Gold ....
| |
| | |
| Au
| |
| | |
| 79
| |
| | |
| 197-2
| |
| | |
| Mercury .
| |
| | |
| Hg
| |
| | |
| 80
| |
| | |
| 200-6
| |
| | |
| (6)
| |
| | |
| (197-200) 202 204
| |
| | |
| Thallium . . .
| |
| | |
| Tl
| |
| | |
| 81
| |
| | |
| 204-0
| |
| | |
| IV
| |
| | |
| Lead ....
| |
| | |
| Pb
| |
| | |
| 82
| |
| | |
| 207-2
| |
| | |
| XI
| |
| | |
| Bismuth .
| |
| | |
| Bi
| |
| | |
| 83
| |
| | |
| 209-0*
| |
| | |
| V
| |
| | |
| Poloniuna
| |
| | |
| Po
| |
| | |
| 84
| |
| 85
| |
| | |
| z
| |
| | |
| VII
| |
| | |
| L Emanation
| |
| | |
| Em
| |
| | |
| 86
| |
| | |
| 222-0
| |
| | |
| III
| |
| | |
| i
| |
| | |
| 87
| |
| | |
| .2 Radium .
| |
| =C2=AE Actinium.
| |
| | |
| Ra
| |
| | |
| 88
| |
| | |
| 226-0
| |
| | |
| IV
| |
| | |
| Ac
| |
| | |
| 89
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| II
| |
| | |
| ^ Thorium . . .
| |
| | |
| Th
| |
| | |
| 90
| |
| | |
| 23215
| |
| | |
| VI
| |
| | |
| ^ Uranium X .
| |
| | |
| UX
| |
| | |
| 91
| |
| | |
| II
| |
| | |
| t_ Uranium
| |
| | |
| Ur
| |
| | |
| 92
| |
| | |
| 238-2
| |
| | |
| II
| |
| | |
| ==APPENDIX II==
| |
| | |
| The Periodic Table of the Elements. The atomic numbers ar=
| |
| e given in
| |
| bold type, the atomic weights in italics and the isotopes, where =
| |
| known, in
| |
| ordinary numerals. The roman ntmierals indicate the chemical groups and
| |
| the most important associated valencies are given below them. Elem=
| |
| ents
| |
| are placed to the left or to the right of the columns according=
| |
| to their chemical
| |
| properties, those in the same vertical line as each other have s=
| |
| trong chemical
| |
| similarities. The Rare Earth group is surrounded by a thick line.=
| |
| Elements
| |
| 59-72 have no properties pronounced enough to give them definite =
| |
| places
| |
| in the table. The properties of the missing elements can be p=
| |
| redicted with
| |
| | |
| PERIODIC TABLE OF
| |
| | |
| | |
| IH
| |
| | |
| 1-008
| |
| | |
| | |
| Valency
| |
| | |
| 0
| |
| | |
| I
| |
| | |
| + 1
| |
| | |
| II
| |
| | |
| + 2
| |
| | |
| III
| |
| | |
| + 3
| |
| | |
| IV
| |
| | |
| + 4
| |
| | |
| 2 He
| |
| | |
| 4-00
| |
| 4
| |
| | |
| 3 Li
| |
| | |
| 6-94
| |
| 6, 7
| |
| | |
| 4 Be
| |
| | |
| 9-1
| |
| | |
| 9
| |
| | |
| 5B
| |
| 10-9
| |
| 10, 11
| |
| | |
| 60
| |
| | |
| 12-00
| |
| 12
| |
| | |
| 10 Ne
| |
| | |
| 20-2
| |
| 20, 22
| |
| | |
| 11 Na
| |
| | |
| 23-00
| |
| 23
| |
| | |
| 12 Mg
| |
| | |
| 24-32
| |
| | |
| 24, 25, 26
| |
| | |
| 13 AI
| |
| | |
| 26-96
| |
| | |
| 14 Si
| |
| 28-3
| |
| 28,29
| |
| | |
| 18 A
| |
| | |
| 39-9
| |
| 36, 40
| |
| | |
| 19 K
| |
| | |
| 39-1
| |
| 39, 41
| |
| | |
| 29 Cu
| |
| | |
| 63-57
| |
| | |
| 20 Ca
| |
| | |
| 40-07
| |
| | |
| 30 Zn
| |
| | |
| 65-37
| |
| | |
| 21 Sc
| |
| 45-1
| |
| | |
| 31 G
| |
| | |
| 70-1
| |
| | |
| 22 Ti
| |
| 48-1
| |
| | |
| 32 Ge
| |
| | |
| 72-5
| |
| | |
| 36 Kr
| |
| | |
| 82-92
| |
| | |
| 78, 80, 82, 83,
| |
| 84, 86
| |
| | |
| 37 Rb
| |
| | |
| 85-45
| |
| | |
| 85, 87
| |
| | |
| 47 Ag
| |
| 107-88
| |
| | |
| 38 Sr
| |
| | |
| 87-83
| |
| | |
| 48 Cd
| |
| 112-40
| |
| | |
| 39 Y
| |
| | |
| 89-33
| |
| | |
| 49 In
| |
| | |
| 114-8
| |
| | |
| 40 Zr
| |
| | |
| 90-6
| |
| | |
| 50 Sn
| |
| | |
| 118-7
| |
| | |
| 54 Xe
| |
| | |
| 130-2
| |
| | |
| 129, 131, 132,
| |
| 134, 136
| |
| | |
| 55 Cs
| |
| | |
| 132-81
| |
| | |
| 133
| |
| | |
| 56 Ba
| |
| | |
| 137-37
| |
| | |
| 57 La 58 Ce
| |
| 139-0 140-25
| |
| | |
| 59 Pr eONd 61 62 Sm 63 Eu =
| |
| 64 Gd 65 Tb
| |
| 140-6 144-3 150-4 152-0 =
| |
| 157-3 159-2
| |
| | |
| 66 Ds 67 Ho 68 Ev 69 Tu 70 Yb 7=
| |
| 1 Lu 72 (Kt)
| |
| 162-5 163-5 1677 168-5 173-5 =
| |
| 175
| |
| | |
| 79 Au
| |
| | |
| 197-2
| |
| | |
| 80 Hg
| |
| | |
| 200-6
| |
| 197-204
| |
| | |
| 81 Tl
| |
| | |
| 204-0
| |
| | |
| 82 Pb
| |
| | |
| 207-2
| |
| | |
| 86 Em
| |
| | |
| 222-0
| |
| | |
| 87-
| |
| | |
| 88 Ra
| |
| | |
| 226-0
| |
| | |
| 89 Ac
| |
| | |
| 90 Th
| |
| | |
| 232-15
| |
| | |
| 144
| |
| | |
| considerable certainty from the positions of their atomic numbers. From
| |
| the point of view of the construction of the atom the inert gas=
| |
| es should mark
| |
| the end of the periods as they are shown to do ua the hst of =
| |
| atomic weights
| |
| in Appendix I, on the other hand it is more usual in chemistry =
| |
| to start with
| |
| valency 0. From principles of general convenience of arrangement t=
| |
| he
| |
| latter plan is adopted in this table, which is intended to give =
| |
| the maximum
| |
| amount of chemical information. Hydrogen, which belongs equally wel=
| |
| l
| |
| to group I or group VII, is best omitted from the. table altoget=
| |
| her.
| |
| | |
| THE ELEMENTS
| |
| | |
| | |
| V
| |
| | |
| VI
| |
| | |
| VII
| |
| | |
| VIII
| |
| | |
| 3
| |
| | |
| 2
| |
| | |
| -
| |
| | |
| -1
| |
| | |
| 7N
| |
| | |
| 80
| |
| | |
| 9F
| |
| | |
| 14-01
| |
| | |
| 16-00
| |
| | |
| 1900
| |
| | |
| 14
| |
| | |
| 16
| |
| | |
| 19
| |
| | |
| 15 P
| |
| | |
| 16 S
| |
| | |
| 17 CI
| |
| | |
| 31-04
| |
| | |
| 32-06
| |
| | |
| 35-46
| |
| | |
| 31
| |
| | |
| 32
| |
| | |
| 35, 37
| |
| | |
| 23 V
| |
| | |
| 24 Cr
| |
| | |
| 25 Mn
| |
| | |
| 26 Fe
| |
| | |
| 27 Co
| |
| | |
| 28 Ni
| |
| | |
| Sl-O
| |
| | |
| 33 As
| |
| | |
| 74-96
| |
| 75
| |
| | |
| 52-0
| |
| | |
| 34 Se
| |
| | |
| 79-2
| |
| | |
| 54-93
| |
| | |
| 35 Br
| |
| | |
| 79-92
| |
| 79, 81
| |
| | |
| 55-85
| |
| | |
| 58-97
| |
| | |
| 58-68
| |
| 58.60
| |
| | |
| 41 Nb
| |
| | |
| 42 Mo
| |
| | |
| 43
| |
| | |
| 44 Ru
| |
| | |
| 45 Rh
| |
| | |
| 46 Pd
| |
| | |
| 93-5
| |
| | |
| 51 Sb
| |
| 120-2
| |
| | |
| 96-0
| |
| | |
| 52 Te
| |
| 127-5
| |
| | |
| 531
| |
| | |
| 126-92
| |
| 127
| |
| | |
| 101-7
| |
| | |
| 102-9
| |
| | |
| 106-7
| |
| | |
| 73 Ta
| |
| | |
| 74 W
| |
| | |
| 7&-
| |
| | |
| 76 0a
| |
| | |
| 77 Ir
| |
| | |
| 78 Pt
| |
| | |
| 181-5
| |
| | |
| 83 Bi
| |
| | |
| 209-0
| |
| | |
| 184-0
| |
| | |
| 84 Po
| |
| | |
| 85
| |
| | |
| 190-9
| |
| | |
| 1931
| |
| | |
| 195-2
| |
| | |
| 91 UX
| |
| | |
| ii
| |
| | |
| 92 U
| |
| | |
| 238-2
| |
| | |
| 145
| |
| | |
| Recent results obtained by Dempster. Thanks to a private=
| |
| | |
| communication the writer is able to include some further results=
| |
| | |
| obtained by Dempster and a diagram of his apparatus for obtaining=
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Fig. 19. Diagram of Anode in Dempster's latest apparatus.=
| |
| | |
| | |
| positive rays from metals. A full account is to appear in the
| |
| Physical Review. Fig. 19 shows the new arrangement of
| |
| vaporising furnace A and ionising filament C. The analysing
| |
| apparatus has already been described on p, 31 and the results wi=
| |
| th
| |
| | |
| | |
| .4F
| |
| | |
| | |
| 5-9
| |
| | |
| | |
| f
| |
| | |
| '
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| k
| |
| | |
| Lithium.
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| )
| |
| | |
| J
| |
| | |
| [
| |
| | |
| <=3D/
| |
| | |
| v..
| |
| | |
| ^^
| |
| | |
| /
| |
| | |
| K
| |
| | |
| 9
| |
| | |
| 30
| |
| | |
| | |
| ZO
| |
| | |
| | |
| 10
| |
| | |
| | |
| 60
| |
| | |
| | |
| 6-1
| |
| | |
| | |
| 6-9
| |
| | |
| Atomic Weight.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 7-0
| |
| | |
| | |
| 7-1
| |
| | |
| | |
| Fig. 20. Curve for Lithium.
| |
| 146
| |
| | |
| ==APPENDIX III==
| |
| | |
| | |
| 147
| |
| | |
| | |
| magnesium on p. 81. Fig. 20 shows one of the curves obtained
| |
| with lithium. It will be seen that the relative intensities of t=
| |
| he
| |
| isotopes is entirely different from that found by the writer (p. =
| |
| 86)
| |
| and also disagrees very definitely with the chemical atomic weight=
| |
| .
| |
| Dempster describes these relative intensities as varying very
| |
| considerably. This is a most remarkable phenomenon and further
| |
| information upon it is very desirable. There seems just a possibi=
| |
| lity
| |
| that the 6 line is enhanced by doubly charged carbon but it is =
| |
| not
| |
| easy to see where such particles could be produced.
| |
| | |
| l/oltS 943 928 913-5 899-5 886 873 860 847-5=
| |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| J
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| Zinc.
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| t
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| f
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| r
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| \i
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| /
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| I
| |
| | |
| /
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| =C2=AE
| |
| | |
| l/
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| 1
| |
| | |
| i^
| |
| | |
| \
| |
| | |
| ^^
| |
| | |
| 62 63 64 65 66 67
| |
| Atomic Weight.
| |
| | |
| Fig. 21. Curve for Zinc.
| |
| | |
| | |
| 68 69
| |
| | |
| | |
| 70
| |
| | |
| | |
| Fig. 21 gives a remarkable curve obtained from zinc. This
| |
| indicates three strong isotopes and a faint fourth. The absolute=
| |
| | |
| scale of atomic weight is not known with certainty, and the valu=
| |
| es
| |
| 63, 65, 67, 69 are given by Dempster as those in best agreement=
| |
| | |
| with the atomic weight 65-37. Considering that the error in th=
| |
| e
| |
| | |
| | |
| 148 APPENDIX III
| |
| | |
| mean atomic weight of lithium, when calculated on these lines,
| |
| is about 5 per cent, it would appear possible that these might =
| |
| be a
| |
| unit too high or too low. The probability of this is strengthene=
| |
| d
| |
| very much by the rule given on p. 110 connecting even atomic
| |
| number with even atomic weight.
| |
| | |
| Results with calcium show only one line. This makes it extremely=
| |
| | |
| probable that this is a simple element of atomic weight 40 and=
| |
| | |
| therefore an isobare of argon. ^
| |
| | |
| Note. In a still later communication Dempster states that =
| |
| he
| |
| has been successful in using an anode of calcium to which a sma=
| |
| U
| |
| quantity of zinc had been added. By this means he is able to
| |
| compare the masses of the zinc isotopes with the strong calcium=
| |
| | |
| maximum, assumed as 40. This gives the atomic weights as 64,
| |
| 66, 68 and 70. The intensities are quite different to those in =
| |
| the
| |
| curve given above for zinc. 64 is now the strongest, 66 and 68=
| |
| | |
| fainter, while 70 is very faint indeed. No explanation is yet
| |
| advanced for these remarkable irregularities in relative intensity.=
| |
| | |
| | |
| He has also observed a small maximum at 44 invariably accom-
| |
| panying the strong calcium maximum 40. This he considers to be
| |
| probably due to an isotope of that element present in smaU quant=
| |
| ity
| |
| as suggested by the atomic weight 40 07.
| |
| | |
| The above values are included provisionally in the tables on
| |
| pages 89 and 142.
| |
| | |
| " V. p. 88.
| |
| | |
| | |
| ==INDEX==
| |
| | |
| | |
| Abnormal hydrides, 98
| |
| | |
| Abundance of the elements, 111
| |
| | |
| Accuracy of mass-spectrograph, 60
| |
| | |
| Actinivim chain, 14, 15
| |
| | |
| Additive law of mass, 99
| |
| | |
| Alkali metals, mass-spectra of, 83
| |
| | |
| Alpha ray changes, 13
| |
| | |
| Analysis of the elements, 63
| |
| | |
| Andrade and Rutherford, 11
| |
| | |
| Anode, composite, 80, 86
| |
| hot, 80, 83, 84
| |
| | |
| Anticathode, silica, 48
| |
| | |
| Antimony, 78
| |
| | |
| Argon, 66
| |
| | |
| Aronbeeg, 123
| |
| | |
| ,, and Harkins, 124
| |
| | |
| Atmolysis, separation by, 127
| |
| | |
| Atomic number, 13, 93
| |
| theory, 2
| |
| ,, volume of isotopes, 18
| |
| weights, tables of, 89, 141
| |
| weights of radio -elements, 13,
| |
| 141
| |
| | |
| Atoms, structure of, 90
| |
| | |
| Balke, Owens and Kremers, 142
| |
| Barkla, 93
| |
| | |
| Batuecas and Moles, 141
| |
| Baxter and Hodges, 142
| |
| and Parsons, 113
| |
| and Starkweather, 141
| |
| and Wilson, 142
| |
| Tani and Chapin, 142
| |
| Weatherell and Holmes,
| |
| 73, 142
| |
| Beryllium, 88
| |
| Beta ray change, 13
| |
| Bohr, 94, 95, 121, 122, 123
| |
| | |
| ,, atom, 95
| |
| BOLTWOOD, 1, 7
| |
| Boron, 72
| |
| | |
| anomalous atomic weight of,
| |
| | |
| 114
| |
| trifluoride, 73
| |
| Bracketing, method of, 59, 69
| |
| Brauner and Krepelka, 141
| |
| Broek, Van den, 93, 94, 116
| |
| Bromine, 76
| |
| | |
| | |
| Bronsted and Hevesy, 135, 136, 139
| |
| | |
| Brosslera, 102, 104
| |
| | |
| Bruylants and Michielson, 142
| |
| | |
| Caesium, 87
| |
| | |
| ,, anomalous atomic weight
| |
| of, 114
| |
| Calcium, 88, 148
| |
| Calibration curve, 55
| |
| Camera of mass-spectrograph, 51
| |
| | |
| positive ray, 26
| |
| Canalstrahlen, 22
| |
| Carbon, 63
| |
| | |
| Carnotite, lead from, 124
| |
| Cathode rays, 22, 24
| |
| Chadwick, 94
| |
| | |
| and Rutherford, 103
| |
| | |
| Chapin, Baxter and Tani, 142
| |
| Chapman, 130
| |
| | |
| and DooTSON, 130
| |
| Chemical action, separation by, 133
| |
| law of radioactive change,
| |
| 11
| |
| Chlorine, 65, 113
| |
| | |
| separation of the isotopes
| |
| of, 136
| |
| Classen, 31
| |
| | |
| and Wey, 142
| |
| Claude, 35
| |
| Cleveite, lead from, 17
| |
| Coincidence, method of, 57
| |
| Composite anode, 80, 86
| |
| Constancy of chemical atomic weights,
| |
| | |
| 22
| |
| Cosmical effect of change of mass, 103
| |
| Crookes, 3, 4, 24, 115, 117
| |
| ,, dark space, 24, 35
| |
| theory of the evolution of
| |
| elements, 117
| |
| Curie, Mlle. I., 113
| |
| M., 18
| |
| | |
| Dalton's hypothesis, 2
| |
| Darwin, 15
| |
| | |
| Davies and Horton, 68
| |
| Deflection of positive rays, 27
| |
| Dempster, 31, 80, 81, 86, 114, 146
| |
| | |
| | |
| 149
| |
| | |
| | |
| 150
| |
| | |
| | |
| INDEX
| |
| | |
| | |
| Dempster's method of analysis, 31,146
| |
| Density balance, 35
| |
| | |
| ,, of isotopic leads, 17, 18
| |
| Diffusion of neon, 39
| |
| | |
| separation by, 127
| |
| velocity, determination of,
| |
| 20
| |
| Disintegration theory of the evolu-
| |
| tion of elements, 116
| |
| Distillation of neon, 37
| |
| Distribution of lines on mass-
| |
| | |
| spectrum, 64
| |
| DooTSON and Chapman, 130
| |
| Du Bois magnet, 61
| |
| | |
| Eddington, 104
| |
| | |
| Einstein's theory of relativity, 103
| |
| Electrical theory of matter, 90
| |
| Electric discharge in gases, 23
| |
| | |
| ,, field of mass-spectrograph,
| |
| 50
| |
| Electricity as an element, 115
| |
| Electrochemical properties of isotopes,
| |
| | |
| 10
| |
| Electron, the, 91
| |
| | |
| Element, meaning of the word, 115
| |
| Enskog, 130
| |
| Epstein, 95
| |
| ExNER and Haschek, 121
| |
| | |
| Fa JANS, 11
| |
| | |
| First order lines, 61
| |
| | |
| Fleck, 12
| |
| | |
| Fluorine, 72, 97
| |
| | |
| Focussing positive rays, 44
| |
| | |
| FOWLEB, 123
| |
| | |
| and Aston, 45
| |
| Fractional distillation, separation by,
| |
| | |
| 133
| |
| Fbanck and Knipping, 68
| |
| | |
| Gehrcke, 102
| |
| | |
| ,, and Reichenheim, 80, 83,
| |
| 88
| |
| Geigek and Nuttall, 10, 13
| |
| Goldstein, 22
| |
| Gravitation effect on spectra, 121
| |
| | |
| separation by, 131
| |
| Groh and Hevesy, 20, 135
| |
| | |
| Hahn, 8
| |
| | |
| and Meitner, 8
| |
| Halation effect, 60
| |
| Half-tone plates, 25
| |
| Hall and Harkins, 116
| |
| Harkins, 102, 111, 116, 129
| |
| | |
| and Aronberg, 124
| |
| | |
| and Hall, 116
| |
| | |
| ,, and Wilson, 116
| |
| Haschek and Exner, 121
| |
| Helium, 67, 69, 106
| |
| | |
| | |
| Hevesy, 10, 12, 19
| |
| | |
| and Bronsted, 136, 136,
| |
| | |
| 139
| |
| and Groh, 20, 135
| |
| and Paneth, 11
| |
| and Zechmeisteb, 20
| |
| Hodges and Baxter, 142
| |
| Holmes, Baxteb and Weathebell,
| |
| | |
| 73, 141
| |
| Honigschmid, 17, 18, 141, 142
| |
| | |
| and Horovitz, 18,
| |
| | |
| 121
| |
| Horovitz and Honigschmid, 18, 121
| |
| HoBTON and Davies, 68
| |
| Hot anode, 80, 83, 84
| |
| Hydrochloric acid, diffusion of, 129
| |
| Hydrogen, 67, 69, 106
| |
| Hyman and Soddy, 17, 121
| |
| | |
| Ibbs, 130
| |
| | |
| Imes, 125, 126
| |
| | |
| Indicators, radioactive, 19
| |
| | |
| Infra-red spectrum of isotopes, 125
| |
| | |
| Intensity of positive rays, 44
| |
| | |
| Iodine, 78
| |
| | |
| Ionic dissociation theory, proof of, 20
| |
| | |
| lonisation in discharge tube, 24
| |
| | |
| Ionium, 1, 7, 9, 18
| |
| | |
| ,, atomic weight of, 18
| |
| Isobares, 12, 13, 97, 110
| |
| Isotopes, definition of, 12
| |
| | |
| diagrams of, 97
| |
| | |
| discovery of, 5
| |
| | |
| melting point of, 18
| |
| | |
| refractive index of, 18
| |
| | |
| separation of, 127
| |
| | |
| solubility of, 18
| |
| | |
| table of, 89, 141
| |
| | |
| James and Stewabt, 142
| |
| JoLY and Poole, 133
| |
| | |
| Keetman, 7
| |
| | |
| Kernel of atom, 98
| |
| | |
| Kibchoff, 116
| |
| | |
| Knipping and Franck, 68
| |
| | |
| kohlweiler, 116
| |
| | |
| Kratzer, 126
| |
| | |
| Kremers, Owens and Balke, 142
| |
| | |
| Krepelka and Bbaun, 141
| |
| | |
| ,, and RiCHABDS, 141
| |
| | |
| Krypton, 70
| |
| | |
| ,, anomalous atomic weight
| |
| of, 114
| |
| | |
| Landaueb and Wendt, 70
| |
| Langmuib, 95, 96, 99
| |
| Lead, atomic weight of, 16
| |
| | |
| ,, from carnotite, 124
| |
| | |
| ,, from thorite, 17
| |
| | |
| isotopes of, 14, 15
| |
| | |
| | |
| INDEX
| |
| | |
| | |
| 15)
| |
| | |
| | |
| Lembert and Richards, 17, 121
| |
| Lewis-Langmuir atom, 95
| |
| LmDEMANN, 102, 124, 134, 139
| |
| | |
| ,, and Aston, 131
| |
| | |
| Lines of first and second order, 61, 76
| |
| | |
| of reference, 55, 64
| |
| Lithium, 86, 97, 146
| |
| LooMis, 125, 126
| |
| | |
| LUDLAM, 129
| |
| | |
| McAxpiNE and Willard, 142
| |
| | |
| Magnesimn, 80
| |
| | |
| Magnetic field of mass-spectrograph,
| |
| | |
| 51
| |
| Marckwald, 7, 8
| |
| Mass, change of, 100
| |
| | |
| deduced from parabolas, 28
| |
| | |
| deduced from mass -spectrum,
| |
| 55
| |
| Mass-spectrograph, 43
| |
| Mass-spectrum, 47, 54
| |
| Measurement of lines on mass-
| |
| | |
| spectrum, 59
| |
| Meitner, 21
| |
| | |
| ,, and Hahn, 8
| |
| Melting point of isotopes, 18
| |
| Mercury, 72, 80
| |
| | |
| parabolas of, 30
| |
| | |
| separation of the isotopes
| |
| of, 134
| |
| Merton, 121, 123, 124, 125
| |
| Mesothorium, 8, 10
| |
| Meta-elements, 4
| |
| | |
| Metallic elements, mass-spectra of, 80
| |
| Meteoric nickel, 113
| |
| MiCHiELSON and Bruylants, 142
| |
| Microbalance for density, 35
| |
| MiLLIKAN, 22, 91
| |
| | |
| Molecular lines of second order, 75
| |
| Moles and Batuecas, 141
| |
| MOSELEY, 11, 93, 115
| |
| Mtjller, 142
| |
| Multiply charged rays, 30
| |
| | |
| Natural numbers and atomic weights,
| |
| | |
| 111
| |
| Negatively charged rays, 29, 62
| |
| Negative mass-spectra, 62, 66
| |
| Neon, 1, 33, 64, 97
| |
| Neuberger, 21
| |
| Nickel, 79
| |
| | |
| meteoric, 113
| |
| Nitrogen, 67, 110
| |
| Nomenclature of isotopes, 61
| |
| Nucleus atom, 10, 92, 97, 125
| |
| | |
| structure of, 101
| |
| Ntjttall and Geiger, 10, 13
| |
| | |
| Order, lines of first and second, 61
| |
| Owens, Balke and Kremers, 142
| |
| Oxygen, 63
| |
| | |
| | |
| Packing effect, 100
| |
| Paneth and Hevesy, 11
| |
| Parabola method of analysis, 25
| |
| Parsons and Baxter, 113
| |
| Perforated electrodes, 22, 24
| |
| Periodic law, 11, 12, 34
| |
| | |
| table of the elements, 144,
| |
| 145
| |
| Period of radio-elements, 13
| |
| Perrin, 104
| |
| Phosphonas, 77
| |
| | |
| Photochemical separation, 137
| |
| Photographic plates for positive rays,
| |
| | |
| 25
| |
| Planck's quantum, 95
| |
| Planetary electrons, 92
| |
| Poole, 133
| |
| | |
| and JoLY, 133
| |
| Positive ray paraljolas, 28
| |
| | |
| rays, 22
| |
| | |
| separation by, 136
| |
| | |
| Potassium, 87
| |
| Pressure diffusion, 131
| |
| Proton, the, 92
| |
| Protyle, 90, 118
| |
| Prout's hypothesis, 2, 90, 100
| |
| | |
| | |
| Radioactive isotopes, 7, 14
| |
| | |
| classification of,
| |
| | |
| 21
| |
| transformations, 13, 14,
| |
| | |
| 15
| |
| Radium B and lead, 11
| |
| D and lead, 11
| |
| Ramsay, 115
| |
| | |
| and Collie, 39
| |
| and Travers, 33
| |
| Ratner, 24
| |
| Rayleigh, 127
| |
| Reference lines, 55, 64
| |
| Refractive index of isotopes, 18
| |
| Reichenheim and Gehrcke, 80, 83,
| |
| | |
| 88
| |
| Renz, 139
| |
| | |
| Resolving power of mass-spectro-
| |
| graph, 60
| |
| Richards 17
| |
| | |
| and Krepelka, 141
| |
| and Lembert, 17, 121
| |
| and Wads WORTH, 17
| |
| Richardson, 85
| |
| Rossi and Russell, 9, 120
| |
| Rubidium, 87
| |
| Russell, U
| |
| | |
| and Rossi, 9, 120
| |
| Rutherford, Sir E., 7, 9, 13, 92, 93,
| |
| 102
| |
| and Chadwick, 103
| |
| | |
| and Andrade, 11
| |
| | |
| Rydberg, 141
| |
| | |
| | |
| 162
| |
| | |
| | |
| INDEX
| |
| | |
| | |
| SCHUTZENBERGER, 3
| |
| | |
| Screens, willemite, 25
| |
| | |
| Secondary rays, 29
| |
| | |
| Second order, lines of the, 61
| |
| | |
| Selenium, 77
| |
| | |
| Separation of isotopes, 127
| |
| | |
| Silicon, 72
| |
| | |
| fluoride, 74
| |
| Skaupy, 139
| |
| | |
| Slit system of mass-spectrograph, 49
| |
| Smith and Van Haagen, 72
| |
| SoDDY, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17,
| |
| 35
| |
| | |
| and Hyman, 17, 121
| |
| Sodium, 86
| |
| Solubility of isotopes, 18
| |
| | |
| SOMMERFEIiD, 95
| |
| | |
| Spectra of isotopes, 9, 121,
| |
| | |
| Spectrum lines, form of, 53
| |
| | |
| Spencer, 91
| |
| | |
| Starkweather and Baxter, 141
| |
| | |
| Stas, 91
| |
| | |
| Statistical relation of isotopes, 109
| |
| | |
| Stewart, 11, 12
| |
| | |
| and James, 142
| |
| Sulphur, 76
| |
| | |
| Tani, Baxter and Chapin, 142
| |
| Tellurium, 77
| |
| Thermal diffusion, 129
| |
| Third order line of argon, 67
| |
| | |
| lines of, 61
| |
| | |
| Thomson, G. P., 86, 88
| |
| | |
| Sir J. J., 1, 22, 29, 33, 62,
| |
| 70, 72, 75, 84, 91, 129
| |
| Thorite, 17, 18
| |
| Thorium, 7, 9, 14, 15, 18, 120
| |
| | |
| | |
| Thorium, chain, 17, 18, 116
| |
| | |
| ,, atomic weight of, 18
| |
| | |
| Tin, 78
| |
| Travers, 39
| |
| | |
| and Ramsay, 33
| |
| Triatomic hydrogen, 70
| |
| | |
| Unitary theory of matter, 90
| |
| Uranium, 10, 120
| |
| ,, chain, 15
| |
| | |
| Valency electrons, 98
| |
| | |
| Van Haagen and Smith, 72
| |
| | |
| Wadsworth and Richards, 17
| |
| Watson, 33
| |
| | |
| and Aston, 24, 35
| |
| Weatherell, Baxter and Holmes,
| |
| | |
| 73, 141
| |
| Welsbach, 8
| |
| | |
| Wendt and Landaueb, 70
| |
| Wey and Classen, 142
| |
| Whole number rule, 90
| |
| WiEN, 22
| |
| | |
| WiLLARD and McAlpine, 142
| |
| Willemite screens, 25
| |
| Wilson and Baxter, 142
| |
| and Harkins, 116
| |
| | |
| Xenon, 70
| |
| :anomalous atomic weight of, 114
| |
| X-ray spectra of isotopes, 1 1
| |
| | |
| Zechmeister and Hevesy, 20
| |
| Zinc, 147
| |
|
| |
|
| | ==Sub Pages== |
| | {{Special:PrefixIndex/{{FULLPAGENAME}}/}} |
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| [[category:reference]] | | [[category:reference]] |